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In regard to working memory, researchers have argued that it is particularly important for reading comprehension (Kendeou et al., 2014) because children must retain information in their short-term memory while processing other parts of text. The schools were located in different parts of the city in order to increase the representation of different demographics in our study. Thus, in this study we aimed to replicate this finding. Korpipää et al. (2017) also showed that non-verbal IQ was a significant predictor of the time-invariant covariation of reading and arithmetic fluency; a finding that needs replication. First, as mentioned above, findings on the predictors of the covariation of reading and arithmetic fluency need to be replicated in a language with a less transparent orthography. Given that RAN and number sense are related to reading and arithmetic accuracy (e.g., Leppänen et al., 2004; Slot et al., 2016; Zhang and Lin, 2018) and reading and arithmetic accuracy are significant predictors of reading and arithmetic fluency (e.g., Nunes et al., 2012; Fuchs et al., 2016), it is possible that the effects of RAN and number sense on the covariation of reading and arithmetic fluency are mediated. We will then disburse the loan amount as soon as possible so that you can have the money you need within hours.
This not only allows us to validate the previous findings, but also to examine the possible mediating role of reading and mathematics accuracy. Because reading accuracy reaches ceiling by the end of Grade 1 in Finland (Seymour et al., 2003), this may have prevented Koponen et al. 0.45) followed from the beginning of Grade 1 (October/November, Time 1) to the end of Grade 1 (May/June, Time 2). They were recruited on a voluntary basis (155 children attending Grade 1 in the participating schools were initially invited to participate in the study) from six public elementary schools in Edmonton, Canada. Prior to beginning the timed naming, the children were asked to name the digits in a practice trial to ensure familiarity. The time to name all digits was the participant's score. The numbers ranged in length from one to six digits. The task was discontinued when participants failed both trials of a given length. The strings started with only two digits and one digit was added at each difficulty level (the maximum length was seven digits). There were 44 items arranged in terms of increasing difficulty and the test was discontinued after four consecutive errors.
To assess phonological awareness, we administered the Elision task from the Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing-2 (Wagner et al., 2013). Children were asked to first listen to a word and then say the word without saying one of its sounds (e.g., Say the word bold without saying the/b/sound). To assess RAN we administered Digit Naming from the RAN/RAS test battery (Wolf and Denckla, 2005). Children were asked to name as fast as possible five digits (2, 4, 5, 7, 9) that were repeated 10 times each and arranged semi-randomly in five rows of ten. 1) To what extent do linguistic skills (phonological awareness and RAN), number skills (number sense), and general cognitive abilities (non-verbal IQ, speed of processing, and working memory) predict reading and youtu.be arithmetic fluency, and their covariation? Based on the findings of previous studies (e.g., Koponen et al., 2007, 2020; Korpipää et al., 2017), we expected that RAN would be a significant predictor of both academic skills as well as of their covariation. 2) To what extent the effects of the linguistic skills, number skills, and general cognitive abilities on the covariation of reading and arithmetic fluency will be mediated by the effects of reading and arithmetic accuracy?